The Basis of Morality

The author examines possible foundations for moral judgment—revelation, intuition, utility, evolution, and mysticism—asking whether religion is necessary to ethics and how each candidate stands up to modern needs. Revelation is criticized as authoritative but static and often containing archaic commands; intuition is presented as an inner moral sense; utility is treated as consequence-based assessment of right and wrong; evolution frames morality as developing with human capacities; mysticism is described as a personal realisation of the divine that inspires individuals but cannot serve as a universal rule. The analysis argues for a basis that accommodates human progress while acknowledging individual spiritual influence.